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Yes Minister Hu's Hu |
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A Look at China's Political System including how leaders are selected, the Communist Party and National People's Congress (parliament) |
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The compass, gunpowder, silk, papermaking, printing ... we have all heard about some of China's great inventions - we'd like to add bureaucracy. In fact the Western bureaucratic system is based on China's Tang Dynasty system (7th Century), and endured until the 20th Century. In the fifties, China had one civil servant for every 600 citizens. In the sixties there were 100 central ministries. By 1994 it was the world's largest - one civil servant for every 30 people (40 million) - cut to 8 million in 1998 and that number was to be halved under Premier Zhu Rongji. Now there are 29 ministries. New Premier Wen Jiabao plans to cut that number to 21 or 22. (Australia in 2001 had 1.4 million public servants - one for every 14 people).
Leadership Changes
Recently you will have heard about changes to China's leadership which were announced during the 16th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (National Party Congress) which meets every five years; at the same time there was a meeting of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC); in addition the National People's Congress (NPC), which meets annually, recently held its 10th NPC. There is also a Central Committee, a Politburo and a Standing Committee, a State Council - getting confused? We hope to untangle the maze in this article.
Since 1949, the Communist Party has ruled China. This is enshrined in law. The Party dominates the political system at all levels and through control of key appointments, coercive capabilities, propaganda apparatus and manipulation of patriotic and nationalistic appeals, not to mention command of government and army, it holds the country together. The leaders of the Party are also the leaders of the State/Government therefore a single centre of power exists. Without the Party, the unity of the mainland might be threatened. But for the Party to survive, it must come to terms with the fact that 'old style control' is not compatible with the requirements of the new century. There have been many economic reforms in the last twenty years and now with WTO membership there has never been more pressure on the Party to reform and start to consider some form of democratisation.
Membership
The largest political party in the world: there are 3.5 million branches and 66 million members of the Communist Party in China: about 17% females; 6% ethnic minorities; 23% under 35; 47% high school graduates; 18% tertiary graduates. Students are joining in increasing numbers: from less than 1% a decade ago to about 4% of applications.
The Communist Party sets the policy which is implemented by State bureaucracy. Its members occupy leadership positions in all the important government institutions - even at local level. It sits at the top as the 'peak' organisation. The structure is like a pyramid with parliament - the National People's Congress (NPC) - China's Parliament effectively at the bottom (although the Constitution states that this is the highest organ of State Power).
National People's Congress
China's 'Parliament' meets annually for about two weeks in the Great Hall of the People, Beijing, with almost 3000 delegates from all over China. Around 20% of delegates are women. It has legislative powers and monitors the enforcement and amendment of China's constitution. It makes decisions on such important issues as establishing Special Administrative regions or going to war. It has the power to make and remove appointments. It elects a smaller, more manageable Central Committee of about 150 members which in turn selects the Politburo (like a cabinet) which subsequently appoints a Standing Committee - this the apex of power.
The NPC has traditionally been a rubber stamp for the Party - over 80% of its delegates are Communist Party members. It was never meant to be an independent body and most members' first loyalty is to the Communist Party. The NPC 'elects' the President and Vice-President of the PRC as well as Premier and Vice-Premiers of the State Council (Government), ministers, state councillors, auditor-general, chairman of the Central Military Commission, etc. Elections are different from the western sense - there is normally only one candidate and he (usually a man) has already been chosen by the more elite levels of the Party. It appoints the heads of the judicial organs as well - the President of the Supreme People's Court and Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate (like a public prosecutions department but with wider powers).
NPC delegates are 'elected' by China's provinces, autonomous regions and cities. They hold office for 5 years. Membership is more or less an honorary position. Most of the members have little, if any, knowledge of lawmaking. In practice, the NPC doesn't have the ability (lack of secretarial and research support) or time to consider draft bills for enactment. On the other hand the Central Committee of the NPC is much smaller in size and meets every two months. Many of its members serve on a full time basis. So, in effect it is the Party elite who draft new legislation, the NPC 'considers' it and approves. Over the last decade, however, there have been signs of a shift - the NPC has shown that it can think for itself. For example, in 1999 it delayed passing a law to bring in an unpopular fuel tax, also 'no' votes are on the increase.
Central Committee
The Central Committee has about 150 members and is like the permanent organ of power and legislation meeting regularly, given that the parliament only meets annually. Its power is further decentralised in the Politburo and Standing Committee.
Politburo and Standing Committee
There are 24 members in the Politburo and it discusses all-important issues and makes decisions; even more exclusive is the NPC Standing Committee which now consists of nine members (up from six). Its workings are secret. There are no women in these hallowed echelons and connections at the highest levels of the Communist Party, not to mention patrons, strong survival instincts and an impeccable record are required to reach the apex of the Party pyramid. The General Secretary (Chairman) of the Party, the highest leading position within the Communist Party, is elected from members of the Standing Committee. Hu Jintao was recently appointed to this position of power.
There is also a central Party bureaucracy - the Secretariat - that has specialised departments within such as Propaganda and Organisation (maintains files on Party officials and decides on promotions, or worse). It is, consequently, a very powerful institution with the General Secretary as its leader. A Disciplinary Commission within the Party deals with corruption, breaks with the Party line, abuses, etc. The Party investigating the Party enables the more powerful members to protect themselves from criticism. In 2001 President Jiang declared that 473,000 members had been kicked out of the Party over the previous 12 years for various digressions (less than one percent of membership).
Historically, senior (retired) leaders have retained great influence over the Standing Committee. Deng Xiaoping still held the reigns after 'retiring' and now it appears that Jiang Zemin is not going to give up power easily. These 'party elders' normally stack the Standing Committee with supporters. They want to maintain influence, enjoy a pampered retirement and protect their reputations and achievements for themselves and their families.
The title of President is largely ceremonial. Titular head of the Party (Party Chairman/General Secretary) confers great power and as Mao said "power flows from the barrel of a gun", thus the position as Head of the Central Military Commission, arguably holds even more authority.
Central Military Commission
The People's Liberation Army is controlled by this body and its Chairman is now President Hu Jintao. By contrast, the Ministry of Defence under the Government has little power. In practice, the Military Commission follows the decisions of another committee - the Central Military Committee of the Communist Party and the PLA has a strong political presence within its ranks to ensure loyalty. Tian'anmen is an example of how vital the army's support is to the Party during a crisis. Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping both held the chairmanship, in Deng's case long after relinquishing other positions.
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)
Regarded as the top advisory body to the NPC. Its quota includes Party members but also representatives of eight non-communist parties (officially sanctioned), ethnic minority groups, well-known celebrities, for example actress Gong Li, and private businesspeople. It has been described as a 'rubber stamp of the rubber stamp' (John Schauble, Age Newspaper 16 March 2002). It also has representatives from Hong Kong and Macau and from Taiwan. Its main role is to participate in political consultation and discussions on State affairs. They are able to investigate issues and submit proposals and opinions on major issues to the government. In 1949, this body decided on the flag and national anthem and even the adoption of the Gregorian calendar. Many committees are formed under the CPPCC including on issues such as foreign affairs, education, law and science and technology.
National Party Congress
The National Party Congress has about 2100 delegates and meets every 5 years. This is supposed to be the highest Communist Party organ with responsibility for 'electing' the Central Committee. This Congress approves major political tasks, and appoints new leaders which are then 'elected' by the NPC; in reality, they 'rubber stamp' decisions made at the top of the pyramid too. It was this body which formalised the new leadership late in 2002.
State Council – Government
Administrative bodies are known as governments (representative bodies are congresses).
The government implements decisions made by the Party and runs the country. The State Council is its head body. It is led by the Premier, vice premiers, state councillors and ministers in charge of ministries and commissions. There are 29 ministries and commissions in the Government, Premier Wen Jiabao and four vice premiers. The State Council has a cabinet of about 15 members including the Premier and vice premiers. Members have a five-year term and can serve no more than two terms.
Key New Positions
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Party General Secretary and President: Hu Jintao
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Vice President: Zeng Qinghong
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Premier: Wen Jiabao
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Chairman of Military Commission: Jiang Zemin was replaced by President Hu Jintao in 2004
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Vice Premiers: Huang Ju, Wu Yi, Zeng Peiyan, Hui Liangyu
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Chairman of NPC: Wu Bangguo
Down to Grass Roots
The Party dominates at every level in the hierarchy (centre, province/autonomous region and 4 directly administered cities, county/city, basic). The overall structure of Party and Government is replicated at each of these levels. Each has a congress that convenes infrequently and smaller committees with the more important representatives and leaders. At the primary level there are branches and committees set up in factories, mines and other enterprises, offices, schools, shops, PLA companies, even neighbourhoods.
The centre (Beijing) clearly holds a tremendous amount of power, however in such a large country, activities at other levels are also significant and reforms are expanding the powers at local level. In fact, local mayors, governors and Communist Party leaders now command great power. As an old proverb says: "The mountains are high and the Emperor is far away." Across northern China, for example, local officials are ignoring a more lenient tax code established by Beijing and instead are forcing peasants to pay exorbitant taxes on unfertile land. Leaders' mansions are being built in some provinces using funds earmarked by Beijing to fight drugs and HIV. Because this is undermining Beijing's highest-priority reforms, "China's leaders should be trying to figure out how to control the abuses of all these local leaders." (former People's Daily writer, in Time Asia, 5 August 2002) .
There is a degree of democratisation occurring at the local level with the people choosing their representatives to local people's congresses and some election of officials in counties and larger municipalities. It is estimated that tens of thousands of villages in the countryside have held elections not only for village leaders-something that has gone on for more than a decade-but for village Party secretaries, the real power brokers in rural communities. Beijing bans media coverage of these elections, but otherwise it looks the other way.
For an account of the visit by President Hu Jintao to Australia and his historic address to Australia's Parliament: Bush Came, Hu Conquered and Charles Qin Made History.
June 2003
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